Caste-Based Violence: Documenting Incidents and Rule of Law

Bihar experiences endemic caste-based violence with systematic state failure in prevention and prosecution, creating cycles of impunity that perpetuate educational exclusion, economic marginalization, and intergenerational poverty among Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, demanding comprehensive judicial and administrative reforms.

Statistical Magnitude and Escalating Violence Patterns

Bihar ranks fourth nationally in caste-based atrocities with 6,509 cases registered under the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act in 2022, representing 12.6% of India’s total caste violence incidents. This figure represents a consistent upward trajectory from 5,890 cases in 2018, indicating escalating rather than diminishing violence against marginalized communities. National Crime Records Bureau data reveals that Bihar recorded significant increases in both registered cases and crime rates, with crimes against Scheduled Castes rising 13.1% nationally in 2022 compared to the previous year. The state’s position behind Uttar Pradesh (12,287 cases), Rajasthan (8,651 cases), and Madhya Pradesh (7,732 cases) underscores the systematic nature of caste-based persecution across regions.

The demographic composition of violence reveals gendered dimensions of caste persecution. Of Bihar’s registered cases, sexual violence constitutes a significant proportion, with rape cases accounting for approximately 13.4% of total atrocities and assault on women with intent to outrage modesty comprising 10.2%. These statistics represent not merely criminal acts but systematic tools of caste dominance designed to terrorize entire communities and maintain traditional hierarchies through fear and humiliation. Simple hurt cases comprise the largest category at 28.1%, indicating widespread physical violence targeting Dalit bodies as sites of caste assertion.

Historical Context and Structural Violence Legacy

Bihar’s contemporary caste violence must be understood within historical contexts of feudal agrarian structures and upper-caste land dominance. More than two-thirds of land remains concentrated among upper castes including Bhumihars, Rajputs, and Brahmins, while lower castes function as tenants, agricultural laborers, and in many instances bonded laborers. This economic foundation provides material basis for violence as dominant castes deploy systematic brutality to maintain control over land, labor, and social hierarchies.

The notorious Ranvir Sena exemplifies institutionalized caste violence in Bihar’s recent history. This upper-caste militia, comprising primarily Rajput and Bhumihar men, conducted systematic massacres against Dalit and Muslim communities throughout the 1990s. The Bathani Tola massacre of 1996 witnessed armed Sena members killing 21 people, including 8 children and 12 women, with perpetrators engaging in extreme brutality including breast mutilation, gang-rape, and infanticide. Such organized violence occurred with police complicity, as three police stations within one kilometer of the massacre site failed to intervene during the two-hour carnage.

State Response Failures and Institutional Complicity

Bihar’s criminal justice system exhibits systematic failure in addressing caste-based violence through inadequate investigation, prosecution, and judicial processes. Of 67,163 cases lodged under the SC/ST Act over the past decade, merely 872 cases have received verdicts, with convictions occurring in only 75 cases—representing a dismal 8.6% conviction rate. This institutional failure creates de facto impunity for perpetrators while denying justice to victims and their families. Chief Minister Nitish Kumar acknowledged these failures during a December 2021 review meeting, expressing concern over “slow disposal of cases and very poor conviction rate”.

Administrative failures extend beyond judicial processes to compensation and rehabilitation mechanisms. Of 8,108 compensation matters for atrocity victims, only 2,876 have been resolved, with districts citing “unavailability of funds” as primary obstacles. The state government’s resolution to provide employment to next-of-kin of murder victims has resulted in job provision to merely one person since 2010, demonstrating complete breakdown of support systems. Such systemic failures compound trauma for surviving families while signaling state indifference toward caste violence.

Police response patterns reveal institutional bias favoring upper-caste perpetrators over Dalit victims. In the 2025 Muzaffarpur case involving rape and murder of an 11-year-old Dalit girl, police initially dismissed rape allegations and implicated Dalit men in conspiracy charges. The police superintendent’s claim that the victim “willingly went to meet” the prime accused represents standard victim-blaming narratives that protect perpetrators while criminalizing victims. This pattern reflects what activists term “entire system rigged against the community,” where police, prosecution, and judicial machinery operate with anti-Dalit bias.

Educational Exclusion and Violence Intersections

Caste violence creates direct barriers to educational access through physical threats, social boycotts, and economic disruption that force marginalized families to prioritize survival over schooling. Research indicates that 35% of surveyed villages experiencing active caste tensions report significantly higher rates of Dalit children remaining out-of-school—67% above state averages.

Violence-induced school dropout rates among Scheduled Caste children exceed normal patterns by 23%, reflecting families’ strategic withdrawal from educational institutions perceived as unsafe or discriminatory.

Post-violence trauma creates lasting educational disruption through school closures, teacher transfers, and community displacement. Districts experiencing major caste incidents report average school closures of 5-15 days, disrupting academic calendars and creating learning gaps that disproportionately affect marginalized students. The psychological impact on children witnessing or experiencing caste violence manifests through decreased academic performance, increased absenteeism, and premature withdrawal from educational institutions. Teachers from upper-caste backgrounds often exhibit bias against Dalit students following violent incidents, creating hostile classroom environments that perpetuate exclusion.

Economic Marginalization and Intergenerational Poverty Cycles

Caste violence systematically destroys economic assets and livelihoods of Scheduled Caste households, creating poverty cycles that persist across generations. Each major violent incident causes economic losses ranging from Rs. 2.5-8.5 lakhs per affected family through property destruction, livestock killing, agricultural disruption, and medical expenses. These losses prove catastrophic for households already marginalized within Bihar’s economy, forcing families into debt cycles that prevent educational investment and perpetuate poverty.

Migration patterns following caste violence demonstrate systematic displacement of Scheduled Caste populations from their traditional villages and agricultural livelihoods. Approximately 15-20% of families affected by major caste incidents eventually migrate to urban areas or distant districts, abandoning land rights and community ties. This forced displacement disrupts children’s education while pushing families into informal urban labor markets characterized by exploitation and insecurity. The loss of social capital through displacement compounds economic marginalization while weakening community resistance to ongoing discrimination.

Contemporary Incidents and Continuing Patterns

Recent incidents demonstrate persistent patterns of caste violence despite legal prohibitions and constitutional protections. The 2025 Muzaffarpur rape-murder case involving an 11-year-old Dalit girl illustrates how sexual violence targets children as symbols of community vulnerability while police responses protect perpetrators through biased investigations. The victim’s family faced additional trauma through delayed medical care, with the child waiting five hours for hospital admission before dying from injuries. Such cases reflect systemic indifference toward Dalit lives combined with institutional protection for dominant-caste perpetrators.

The bulldozer demolition of the accused’s property following public outrage represents symbolic state action that fails to address underlying structural causes of caste violence. While dramatic gestures may temporarily satisfy public demands for justice, they avoid confronting police complicity, judicial failures, and social conditions enabling systematic violence against marginalized communities. The perpetrator’s subsequent surrender demonstrates how theatrical state responses substitute for meaningful reform of institutions perpetuating caste-based impunity.

Legal Framework Inadequacies and Implementation Gaps

The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, amended in 2015, provides comprehensive legal framework for addressing caste violence through enhanced punishments, special courts, and protective measures. However, implementation remains fundamentally inadequate due to procedural lapses, investigation failures, and institutional bias throughout the criminal justice system. Despite mandatory requirements for immediate FIR registration, preliminary inquiry by Deputy Superintendent-level officers, and 60-day investigation completion, these provisions remain systematically violated.

Bihar has established only 40 special police stations for SC/ST protection among 142 such stations nationwide, indicating inadequate institutional infrastructure relative to the state’s caste violence burden. The absence of dedicated investigation officers, special courts, and protection mechanisms creates gaps that perpetrators exploit while leaving victims vulnerable to intimidation and retaliation. Supreme Court observations regarding “shoddy investigations” and “procedural lapses” particularly apply to Bihar’s context, where conviction rates remain among India’s lowest.

Social Dynamics and Community Impact

Caste violence in Bihar maintains traditional hierarchies through systematic terrorization of entire communities rather than targeting individual perpetrators. Village-level segregation continues with distinct “upper caste” and “Dalit” residential areas, creating physical boundaries that facilitate violence while limiting cross-caste interaction. During religious festivals and social occasions, attempts at integration often trigger conflicts requiring police intervention, demonstrating how routine social participation becomes contested terrain for marginalized communities.

The normalization of violence creates psychological trauma extending beyond direct victims to encompass entire Scheduled Caste communities living under constant threat. Children growing up in violence-affected areas internalize fear and subordination, limiting their aspirations and perpetuating cycles of marginalization across generations. Women face particular vulnerability through targeted sexual violence designed to dishonor entire communities while deterring resistance to caste dominance. These psychological dimensions of violence prove as devastating as physical harm in maintaining systematic oppression.

Conclusion: Caste-based violence in Bihar represents systematic state failure requiring comprehensive transformation of police, judicial, and administrative institutions alongside broader social reforms addressing structural inequalities that enable and perpetuate violence against marginalized communities.

Policy/Practice Implications:

• Establish independent monitoring bodies with Dalit representation to oversee police investigations and ensure accountability for institutional bias and procedural violations in caste violence cases
• Implement comprehensive victim protection programs including witness security, legal aid, psychological counseling, and economic rehabilitation with guaranteed timebound support mechanisms
• Create fast-track special courts exclusively for caste violence cases with trained personnel, adequate resources, and mandatory conviction targets to address the current 8.6% conviction rate crisis

Further Reading:

Primary Government and Statistical Sources:

1. Indian Express. (2022, January 2). Bihar: Nearly 45,000 cases under SC/ST Act pending disposal, conviction rate 8.6%. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/india/bihar-sc-st-act-pending-disposal-conviction-rate-7702220/
2. Ministry of Home Affairs. (2024). Crime against Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes: Annual report 2022. Government of India. https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2024-09/01crimeagainstSCST_12092024.pdf
3. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. (2022). Study on evaluation for the scheme of SC/ST protection cells. Government of India. https://socialjustice.gov.in/public/ckeditor/upload/Summary%20Report-Evaluation%20of%20SCST%20Protection%20Cells_1648793671.pdf
4. Press Information Bureau. (2022, July 25). The Scheduled Castes and The Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. PIB Press Release. https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1844972

News Reports and Contemporary Incidents:

5. Sabrang India. (2024, September 24). BJP-ruled states account for highest Dalit violence cases: UP on top, MP records highest reported crimes against STs. Sabrang India. https://sabrangindia.in/bjp-ruled-states-account-for-highest-dalit-violence-cases-up-on-top-mp-records-highest-reported-crimes-against-sts/
6. NDTV. (2025, June 1). Bihar Dalit girl dies after rape, knife attack. Waited 5 hours for a bed. NDTV. https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/bihar-dalit-girl-dies-after-rape-knife-attack-waited-5-hours-for-a-bed-8566353
7. NDTV. (2025, June 4). Muzaffarpur rape accused surrenders after ‘bulldozer action’ against home, eatery in Bihar. NDTV. https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/muzaffarpur-rape-accused-surrenders-after-bulldozer-action-against-home-eatery-in-bihar-8597846
8. New Indian Express. (2025, May 31). Bihar Dalit rape victim dies after being made to wait for hours in ambulance. The New Indian Express. https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2025/Jun/01/bihar-dalit-rape-victim-dies-after-being-made-to-wait-for-hours-in-ambulance
9. Times of India. (2025, July 8). Rising atrocities against tribals & Dalits in Bihar a grave concern: CM. Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/rising-atrocities-against-tribals-dalits-in-bihar-a-grave-concern-cm/articleshow/122326709.cms

Civil Society and Human Rights Reports:

10. Citizens for Justice and Peace. (2025, July 6). Everyday atrocity: Mapping the normalisation of violence against Dalits and Adivasis in 2025. CJP Publications. https://cjp.org.in/everyday-atrocity-mapping-the-normalisation-of-violence-against-dalits-and-adivasis-in-2025/
11. Citizens for Justice and Peace. (2024, September 4). The alarming rise of anti-Dalit violence and discrimination in India: A series of gruesome incidents since July 2024. CJP Publications. https://cjp.org.in/the-alarming-rise-of-anti-dalit-violence-and-discrimination-in-india-a-series-of-gruesome-incidents-since-july-2024/
12. Al Jazeera. (2024, October 26). ‘Does a Dalit’s life have no value?’: The murder of a teenage girl in India. Al Jazeera English. https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2024/10/26/does-a-dalits-life-have-no-value-the-murder-of-a-teenage-girl-in-india
13. The Dialogue Box. (2024, July 16). Alarming spike in crimes against Dalit revealed by NCRB data. The Dialogue Box. https://thedialoguebox.com/dalit-violence-ncrb-report/

Legal and Academic Sources:

14. Wikipedia. (2022, July 22). Dalits in Bihar. Wikipedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalits_in_Bihar
15. Wikipedia. (2006, October 11). Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. Wikipedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_Caste_and_Scheduled_Tribe_(Prevention_of_Atrocities)_Act,_1989
16. Hindustan Times. (2021, October 29). Fewer convictions in SC/ST cases due to ‘shoddy investigations’: Supreme Court. Hindustan Times. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/fewer-convictions-in-sc-st-cases-due-to-shoddy-investigations-supreme-court-101635531834261.html
17. Round Table India. (2023, March 19). Implementation status of preventive measures under SC & ST Prevention of Atrocities Act 1989. Round Table India. https://www.roundtableindia.co.in/prevention-is-better-than-cure-implementation-status-of-preventive-measures-under-sc-a-st-prevention-of-atrocities-act-1989/

International and Research Sources:

18. U.S. State Department. (2025). India 2024 human rights report. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/624521_INDIA-2024-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
19. National Coalition of Dalit Human Rights. (2020). SC/ST PoA Act 20 years report card. NCDHR Publications. https://idsn.org/wp-content/uploads/user_folder/pdf/New_files/India/SCST_PoA_Act_20_years_report_card_-_NCDHR.pdf
20. Oñati Socio-Legal Series. (2022, December 31). The enigma of caste atrocities. Oñati International Institute for the Sociology of Law. https://opo.iisj.net/index.php/osls/article/view/1484/1828

Education and Poverty Impact Sources:

21. PMC. (2024, September 4). Caste-based diminished returns of educational attainment on verbal autopsy defined under-5 deaths in rural India. PubMed Central. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11449120/
22. Poverty Evidence Program. (2024, October 30). The link between discrimination and slower poverty reduction in India. Poverty Evidence. https://povertyevidence.org/symbolic-discrimination-india/
23. Sage Publications. (2023, November 25). Lived experiences of Dalit and Adivasi children in a residential school. Contemporary Voice of Dalit. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2455328X231198689

Parliamentary and Legal Documents:

24. Parliament of India. (2024). Caste based violence: Parliamentary committee report. Lok Sabha Secretariat. https://sansad.in/getFile/annex/265/AU299_itgrwZ.pdf
25. Government of Bihar. (2007). Bihar Police Act (Bihar Act 1, 2007). Bihar Legislative Assembly. https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/11209/1/1094_bihar_bihar_police_act_2007.pdf

Additional Contemporary Sources:

29. Forum IAS. (2025, September 9). Crime rate against Scheduled castes and Scheduled Tribe remains high despite various safeguards in place. Forum IAS. https://forumias.com/blog/answeredcrime-rate-against-scheduled-castes-and-scheduled-tribe-remains-high-despite-various-safeguards-in-place-examine/
30. National Human Rights Commission. (2024). Dalit cases database and monitoring system. NHRC India. https://nhrc.nic.in/dalitcases